Ancient peoples of Italy 1400-509 BC
The Italian Bronze Age begins around 1500 BC, likely corresponding
to the arrival of Indo-European speakers whose descendants would become the Italic
peoples of the Iron Age; alongside the early Italic cultures, however, the Etruscan
civilization in central Italy, Celts in northern Italy and Greek colonies in the
south flourished during 8th to 5th centuries BC.
The Canegrate culture (13th century BC) may
represent the first migratory wave of the proto-Celtic population from the northwest
part of the Alps that, through the Alpine passes, penetrated and settled in the western Po valley between Lake Maggiore and Lake Como (Scamozzina
culture). They are called the Golasecca culture, which
is nowadays identified with the Celtic Lepontii. Arriving in northern Italy during the reign
of Tarquinius
Priscus (7th-6th
century BC), they occupied the area between Milan and Cremona. Milan (Mediolanum) itself is presumably
a Gaulish foundation of the early 6th century BC, its name having a Celtic etymology
of "city in the middle of the plain".
 |
| 8th to 5th centuries BC |
The Etruscan is the name given to a powerful and wealthy civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria and northern Lazio. As distinguished by its unique language, this civilization endured from before the
time of the earliest Etruscan inscriptions (c. 700 BC) until its assimilation into the Roman Republic, beginning in the late 4th century BC with
the Roman–Etruscan
Wars.
According to Strabo, Magna Graecia's colonization had already
begun by the time of the Trojan War and lasted for several centuries. In the 8th
and 7th centuries BC, for various reasons including
demographic crises (famine, overcrowding, etc.) and the search for new commercial
outlets and ports, Greeks began to settle in in Sicily and the southern part of
the Italian Peninsula. The Romans called the area of
Sicily and the foot of Italy Magna Graecia (Latin, “Great Greece”) since it was so densely
inhabited by the Greeks.
Roman
Kingdom 753-509 BC
Among the Italic peoples, the Latins, originally situated
in the Latium region, and their Latin language would come to dominate the peninsula
of Italy in the 3rd century BC.
The site of the founding of the Roman Kingdom (and eventual Republic and Empire) had a ford where one could cross the river Tiber. The Palatine Hill and
hills surrounding it provided easily defensible positions in the wide fertile plain
surrounding them.
Since Rome's records were destroyed in 390 BC when the city was sacked, it is impossible to know for certain how
many kings actually ruled the city, or if any of the deeds attributed to the individual
kings, by later writers, are accurate.
Romulus was the legendary founder and first king
of Rome.
The founding of the city by
Romulus was commemorated annually on April 21, with the festival of the Parilia. His
first act was to fortify the Palatine, in the course of which he made a sacrifice
to the gods.
Romulus then laid out the city's boundaries with a furrow that he ploughed,
performed another sacrifice, and with his followers set to work building the city
itself. Romulus then sought the assent
of the people to become their king.
During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman King was the principal executive magistrate. He was the chief executive, priest, lawgiver, judge and the sole commander-in-chief of the army. He had the sole power to select his own assistants, and to grant them their powers. Unlike most other ancient monarchs, his powers rested on law and legal precedent, through a type of statutory authorization known as "Imperium" (Latin: "Command").
Year
|
King
|
Other notable
information
|
753–717 BC
|
Italian
myth of Romulus and Remus.
|
|
716–673 BC
|
Rome's most
important religious and political institutions are attributed to him
|
|
673–642 BC
|
Defeat
of Alba Longa
|
|
640–616 BC
|
Wars
with the Sabines
and Albans
|
|
616–579 BC
|
Increased
the number of the Senate; Built the Circus Maximus
|
|
578–535 BC
|
Compitalia
festivals; Roman coinage developed
|
|
535–509 BC
|
Last king of
Rome
|
Roman Republic 509-27 BC
The Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud) was deposed because his son, Sextus Tarquinius, had raped the noblewoman Lucretia, who afterwards took her own life.
Lucretia's father, her husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, and Tarquin's own nephew, Lucius Junius Brutus, mustered support from the Senate and army, and forced Tarquin into exile in Etruria.
The Senate agreed to abolish kingship. Most of the king's former functions were transferred to two Consuls., who were elected to office for a term of one year. Each consul had the capacity to act as a check on his colleague, if necessary through the same power of veto that the kings had held. If a consul abused his powers in office, he could be prosecuted when his term expired. Brutus and Collatinus became Republican Rome's first consuls.
The system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. Under the republic, regions of the empire were ruled by provincial governors answerable to and authorised by the "Senate and People of Rome". Rome and its senate were ruled by a variety of magistrates – of whom the consuls were the most powerful.
Roman conquest of Italy 369-218 BC
It was the result of a series of conflicts in which the city-state of Rome grew from being the dominant state in Latium to become the ruler of all of Italy.
The system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative assemblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. Under the republic, regions of the empire were ruled by provincial governors answerable to and authorised by the "Senate and People of Rome". Rome and its senate were ruled by a variety of magistrates – of whom the consuls were the most powerful.
Roman conquest of Italy 369-218 BC
It was the result of a series of conflicts in which the city-state of Rome grew from being the dominant state in Latium to become the ruler of all of Italy.
The first major Roman conquest in historical
times came with the final defeat of her neighbor Veii in 396 BC. At the same time, however, several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture
expanded throughout Europe. In 390 BC, the Gauls defeated the Roman army of around
15,000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and
partially sacked the town before being either driven off or bought off.
After swiftly recovering from the sack of Rome, the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. In the second half of the 4th century BC Rome clashed repeatedly with the Samnites, a powerful tribal coalition. The Romans beat the Samnites in both the Battle of Mount Gaurus in 342 BC and the Battle of Suessula in 341 BC but were forced to withdraw before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War. By the end of these wars Rome had become the most powerful state in Italy.
By 300 BC, Rome had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms.The last threat to Roman hegemony came when Tarentum enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War (282–273 BC).
The conflicts with Pyrrhus showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing Magna Grecia. By 218 BC Roman conquest of Italian peninsula had been completed.
Conquered territories were incorporated into the growing Roman state in a number of ways: land confiscations, establishment of coloniae, granting of full or partial Roman citizenship and military alliances with nominally independent states. The conquest of Italy paved the way to the eventual Roman domination of the entire Mediterranean world.
Roman expansions 264-146 BC
After swiftly recovering from the sack of Rome, the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. In the second half of the 4th century BC Rome clashed repeatedly with the Samnites, a powerful tribal coalition. The Romans beat the Samnites in both the Battle of Mount Gaurus in 342 BC and the Battle of Suessula in 341 BC but were forced to withdraw before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War. By the end of these wars Rome had become the most powerful state in Italy.
By 300 BC, Rome had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean at the time: Carthage and the Greek kingdoms.The last threat to Roman hegemony came when Tarentum enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War (282–273 BC).
The conflicts with Pyrrhus showed that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing Magna Grecia. By 218 BC Roman conquest of Italian peninsula had been completed.
Conquered territories were incorporated into the growing Roman state in a number of ways: land confiscations, establishment of coloniae, granting of full or partial Roman citizenship and military alliances with nominally independent states. The conquest of Italy paved the way to the eventual Roman domination of the entire Mediterranean world.
Roman expansions 264-146 BC
The
Punic Wars
(264-146 BC) was a series of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage. Rome had
conquered Carthage's empire and completely destroyed the city, becoming the most
powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. Rome's preoccupation with its war with Carthage
provided an opportunity for Philip V of Macedon in northern Greece to attempt to extend his power westward.
Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere, Rome sought
out land allies in Greece to fight a proxy war against Macedon on its behalf and found partners
in the Aetolian League of Greek city-states, the Illyrians to the north of Macedon, the kingdom of Pergamon and the Rhodes city-state, which lay
across the Aegean from Macedon.
The First Macedonian War (214–205 BC) saw the Romans involved directly in only
limited land operations. After the Macedonians
had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC, the Greek city-state of Sparta stepped into the partial
power vacuum in Greece. Fearing the Spartans would take increasing control of the
region, the Romans drew on help from allies to prosecute the Roman-Spartan War, defeating a Spartan army at
the Battle of Gythium in 195 BC. They also fought
their former allies the Aetolian League in the Aetolian War, against the Illyrians in the Illyrian War, and Achaia in the Achaean War.
Rome now turned its attentions to Antiochus III of Seleucid Empire to the east. After campaigns
as far abroad as Bactria, India, Persia and Judea, Antiochus moved to Asia Minor
and Thrace to secure several
coastal towns, a move that brought him into conflict with Roman interests.
The First Triumvirate 73-44 BC
The First Triumvirate is a term historians use for an informal political alliance of three prominent men between 59 and 53 BC, during the late Roman Republic: Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great), and Marcus Licinius Crassus.
Pompey was considered the greatest military
commander of his time and commanded armies in the Third Servile War (73–71 BC) in Italy and the Third Mithridatic War (73–63 BC) against King Mithridates VI of Pontus and King Tigranes the Great
of Armenia in West Asia. This gave
him great prestige and popularity. Crassus was a property speculator, the largest
landlord, and the richest man in Rome.
Following
the defeat of both Mithridates
and Tigranes in 69 BC, a rump Seleucid kingdom at Syria was restored. Pompey set about the task of remaking
the Hellenistic East, by creating new client kingdoms and establishing provinces.
While client states like Armenia and Judea were allowed to continue with some degree
of autonomy under local kings, Pompey saw the Seleucids as too troublesome to continue;
doing away with both rival Seleucid princes, he made Syria into a Roman province
in 63 BC.
Julius Caesar was a prominent politician
and was eventually renowned for
his conquest of Gaul (58-50 BC). Caesar defeated a union
of Gauls at the Battle of Alesia, completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul
(today Southern France). By 50 BC, the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Gaul
never regained its Celtic identity, never attempted another nationalist rebellion.
The three men formed an alliance with which
they could gather sufficient popular support to counter the stranglehold the Roman Senate had over Roman politics. The alliance had been kept secret until
Pompey and Crassus publicly
supported a land law proposed by Caesar in 58 BC.
The triumvirate lasted from 59 BC until Crassus' death at
the Battle of Carrhae, where he was defeated against the Parthians in 53
BC, leaving behind an increasingly fractious relationship between Caesar and Pompey
as they now had no buffer.
After
being victorious in the Gallic Wars and earning respect and praise from the legions, Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon with his army in northern Italy
in 49 BC leading
to a civil war. The conflict eventually led to
Caesar's victory over Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC and the latter's assassination
in Ptolemaic Egypt where he fled after the battle. With
his sole preeminence over Rome, Caesar gradually accumulated many offices, eventually
being granted a dictatorship for perpetuity.
In 44 BC Caesar was assassinated in Rome, in the Ides of March
by the Liberatores, and the following year his heir Octavian formed
the Second Triumvirate with general Marcus Antonius and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Caesar's best friend.
The Second Triumvirate 44-27 BC
The Second Triumvirate is the name given to the official political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Caesar Augustus), Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, formed on 27 November 43 BC with the enactment of the Lex Titia, the adoption of which some view as marking the end of the Roman Republic.
The Second Triumvirate 44-27 BC
The Second Triumvirate is the name given to the official political alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Caesar Augustus), Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, formed on 27 November 43 BC with the enactment of the Lex Titia, the adoption of which some view as marking the end of the Roman Republic.
Unlike the earlier First Triumvirate, the Second Triumvirate was an official,
legally established institution, whose overwhelming power in the Roman state was
given full legal sanction and whose imperium outranked that of
all other magistrates, including the consuls.
Lepidus
was forced to retire in 36 BC after betraying Octavian in Sicily. Antony settled
in Egypt with his lover, Cleopatra
VII of Egypt. Mark Antony's affair with Cleopatra was seen as an act
of treason, since she was queen of a foreign power and Antony was adopting an extravagant
and Hellenistic lifestyle that was considered inappropriate for a Roman statesman.
Following
Antony's Donations
of Alexandria, which gave to Cleopatra the title of "Queen of Kings",
and to their children the regal titles to the newly conquered Eastern territories,
the war between Octavian and Mark Antony broke out. Octavian annihilated Egyptian
forces the Battle of Actium in Greece in September 31 BC. Mark
Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, leaving Octavian the sole ruler of the Republic.
In 27
BC, Octavian was granted the title of "Augustus" by the Senate and proceeded to establish the Principate as the first Roman "Emperor". That
event is usually taken by historians as the beginning of Roman Empire. Officially,
the government was republican, but Augustus assumed absolute powers.
Roman Emperors 27 BC – 330 AD
The Roman Emperors and Empresses were
men and women who ruled the Roman Empire and wielded power over its citizens and military. Augustus, the first emperor, was careful to maintain the facade
of republican rule, taking no specific title for his position and
calling the concentration of magisterial power "Princeps Senatus"
(the first man of the senate). This
style of government lasted for 300 years, and is thus called the Principate era.
Julio-Claudian dynasty 27 BC-68 AD
Augustus had taken Caesar as a component of his name, and handed down the name to his heirs of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which lasted for four more emperors—Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn Year of Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor (the brief Flavian dynasty).
Augustus completed the conquest of Hispania, while subordinate generals expanded Roman possessions in Africa and Asia Minor. His stepson Tiberius had conquered Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania for the Empire.
Julio-Claudian dynasty 27 BC-68 AD
Augustus had taken Caesar as a component of his name, and handed down the name to his heirs of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which lasted for four more emperors—Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn Year of Four Emperors, from which Vespasian emerged as victor (the brief Flavian dynasty).
Augustus completed the conquest of Hispania, while subordinate generals expanded Roman possessions in Africa and Asia Minor. His stepson Tiberius had conquered Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania for the Empire.
Name
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Great-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar; became de
facto emperor as a result of the 'first settlement' between himself and
the Roman Senate.
|
Jan 27 BC –
Aug 14 AD
|
Aug 19,
14 AD
Natural causes or perhapspoisoning by his wife, Livia |
|
Natural son of Livia Drusilla, Augustus' third wife, by a previous
marriage, and Augustus' son-in-law; adopted by Augustus as his son and heir.
|
Sept 14 AD – Mar 37
AD
|
March 16, 37 AD
Probably natural causes, possibly assassinated by Caligula |
|
Great-nephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius, natural
son of Germanicus, great-grandson
of Augustus.
|
Mar 37 AD –
Jan 41 AD
|
Jan 24,
41 AD
Assassinated in a conspiracy involving senators and Praetorian Guards. |
|
Nephew of Tiberius, brother of Germanicus, uncle of Caligula,
great-nephew-in-law and step grandson of Augustus; proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard.
|
Jan 41 AD –
Oct 54 AD
|
Oct 13, 54 AD
Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger,
in favor of her son Nero, possibly natural causes. |
|
Grandson of Germanicus,
nephew of Caligula, great-great-nephew of Tiberius, and great-great-grandson of
Augustus; great-nephew, stepson, son-in-law, and adopted son of Claudius.
|
Oct 54 AD –
June 68 AD
|
June 9, 68 AD
Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate. |
Flavian dynasty 68-96
Name
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Seized power after Nero's suicide, with support
of the Spanish legions
|
June 68 – Jan 69
|
Jan 15, 69. Murdered
by Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho.
|
|
Appointed by Praetorian Guard
|
Jan 69 – April 69
|
April 16, 69. Committed
suicide after losing Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius
|
|
April 69 – Dec 69
|
Dec 20, 69. Murdered
by Vespasian's troops
|
||
Seized power from Vitellius with the support of the eastern Legions
|
Dec 69 – June 79
|
June 24, 79. Natural causes
|
|
Son of
Vespasian
|
June 79 – Sept 81
|
Sept 13, 81 AD. Natural causes
(fever)
|
|
Son of
Vespasian
|
Sept 81 – Sept 96
|
Sept 18, 96 AD. Assassinated by
court officials
|
Birth and Spread of Christianity
30-100 AD
In 37 BC, Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate. Jesus Christ was born while Herod, a part-Jew, ruled as local king, that year is called the 1st year of the Christian era: AD 1.
In 37 BC, Herod the Great was appointed "King of the Jews" by the Roman Senate. Jesus Christ was born while Herod, a part-Jew, ruled as local king, that year is called the 1st year of the Christian era: AD 1.
By 30 AD, a new religious movement began
among the Jews in the distant borders of the Roman Empire. A group of Jews began
following the teachings of a new leader by Jesus Christ. Slowly this movement expanded
beyond the Jews to many other peoples in the surrounding areas, in such cities
as Alexandria, Ephesus, Antioch, Corinth and even Rome, and a new religion was born. This new religion
would be known as Christianity.
Jesus was executed
in probably 30 AD. After his death, his
followers continued to teach those things that he had taught them. They taught that
Jesus Christ was the Son of God, and the Messiah that the Jews had been waiting
for.
St. Peter (died between AD 64 and 68), also known as Simon Peter, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. According to Catholic tradition he received the keys of the
Kingdom of
Heaven (Matthew 16:18–19). Feast day (Feast of Saints Peter and Paul) 29 June, (Chair
of Saint Peter) 22 February.
He is recognized by the Catholic Church as the first Bishop of Rome (Pope)
appointed by Christ.
Many people throughout the Mediterranean accepted these teachings,
and became known as Christians. For the next 300 years, Christianity was practiced
by many city dwellers in private. Roman officials viewed Christians as a threat
and often had them killed. Christians continued to establish churches and to spread
their religion, but they did so discreetly.
Five Good
Emperors, Nerva–Antonine
dynasty 96-192
The Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96 - 192 AD) followed, which produced the Five good emperors: Nerva,
Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and the philosophically
inclined Marcus Aurelius. The
first five of the six successions within this dynasty were notable in that the reigning
Emperor adopted the candidate of his choice to be his successor.
In 101 AD Trajan personally
crossed the Danube and defeated the armies of the Dacian king Decebalus at Tapae.
Trajan marched first on Armenia. He deposed the king and annexed it to the Roman
Empire. Then he turned south into Parthia itself, taking the cities of
Babylon and Seleucia in 116 AD. During his rule, the Roman Empire was to its largest
extent.
Name
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Appointed by the Senate
|
Sept 96 –
Jan 98
|
Jan 27, 98
Natural causes |
|
Adopted son and heir of Nerva
|
Jan 98 –
Aug 117
|
Aug 7, 117
Natural causes |
|
Adopted son and heir of Trajan
|
Aug 117 – July 138
|
July 10, 138
Natural causes |
|
Adopted son and heir of Hadrian
|
July 138 – March 161
|
March 7, 161
Natural causes |
|
Adopted
son, son-in-law and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Lucius Verus until 169 AD
|
March 161 – March 180
|
March 17, 180
Natural causes |
|
Adopted
son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until death
|
March 161 – March 169
|
March 169
Natural causes (Plague) |
|
Natural
son of Marcus Aurelius; joint emperor from 177 AD
|
177 –
Dec 192
|
Dec 31, 192. Assassinated
in palace, strangled to death
|
The naming by Marcus Aurelius of his natural son Commodus was considered to be an unfortunate choice and the beginning of the Empire's decline. During Commodus’ solo reign, the Empire enjoyed a period of reduced military conflict, but intrigues and conspiracies abounded, leading Commodus to an increasingly dictatorial style of leadership that culminated in a God-like personality cult.
Year of the Five Emperors, Severan dynasty 193-235
Commodus' assassination in 192 marked the end of Nerva–Antonine dynasty and the beginning of the decline of Rome. He was succeeded by the first emperor in the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors, in which there were five claimants for the title of Roman Emperor.
The Severan dynasty (193 – 235) was founded by the general Septimius Severus, who rose to power as the victor of the 193–197 civil war. Although he successfully restored peace following the upheaval of the late 2nd century, the dynasty was disturbed by highly unstable family relationships, as well as constant political turmoil foreshadowing the imminent Crisis of the Third Century. It was one of the last lineages of the Principate founded by Augustus.
Name
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard
|
Jan 1, 193 –
Mar 28, 193
|
March 28, 193. Murdered by Praetorian Guard
|
|
Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor
|
Mar 28, 193 –
June 1, 193
|
June 1, 193. Executed on orders of the Senate
|
|
Seized power with support of Pannonian legions
|
April 9, 193 –
Feb 4, 211
|
Feb 4, 211. Natural causes
|
|
Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus from
198 ; with Severus and Geta from 209 until Feb 211
|
198 –
April 8, 217
|
April 8, 217. Murdered by a soldier as part of a conspiracy
involving Macrinus
|
|
Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus and Caracalla from 209 until Feb 211
|
209 –
Dec 26, 211
|
Dec 19,
211. Murdered on the orders of Caracalla
|
|
|
withDiadumenian |
Praetorian Prefect to Caracalla, proclaimed
himself emperor after Caracalla's death; appointed his son Diadumenian junior emperor in May 217
|
April 11, 217 – June 8, 218
|
June 8, 218. Both executed in favour of Elagabalus
|
Grandson-in-law of Septimius Severus, alleged illegitimate son of
Caracalla;
proclaimed emperor by Syrian legions
|
June 8, 218 –
Mar 11, 222
|
March 11, 222. Murdered by Praetorian Guard
|
|
Grandson-in-law of Septimius Severus, cousin and adoptive heir of Elagabalus
|
Mar 13, 222 –
Mar 18, 235
|
March 18, 235. Murdered by the army
|
Crisis of the Third Century 235-285
The Crisis of the Third Century (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. The crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops in 235, initiating a 50-year period during which there were at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, who assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire.
The Crisis of the Third Century (AD 235–284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. The crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops in 235, initiating a 50-year period during which there were at least 26 claimants to the title of emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, who assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire.
By 268, the empire had split into three competing states: the Gallic Empire, including the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britannia and (briefly) Hispania; the Palmyrene Empire, including the eastern provinces of Syria Palaestina and Aegyptus; and the Italian-centered and independent Roman Empire between them. Later, Aurelian (270–275) reunited the empire; the crisis ended with the ascension and reforms of Diocletian in 284.
Name
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Proclaimed emperor by German legions after
the murder of Severus
Alexander
|
Mar 20, 235 – June 238
|
June 238.
Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
|
|
Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa,
during a revolt against Maximinus. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to Maximinus.
|
Mar 22, 238 – April 12, 238
|
April 238. Committed suicide upon hearing
of the death of Gordian II.
|
|
Mar 22, 238 – April 12, 238
|
April 238. Killed during the Battle
of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army
|
||
April 22, 238 – July 29, 238
|
July 29, 238. Assassinated by the Praetorian
Guard
|
||
April 22, 238 – July 29, 238
|
July 29, 238. Assassinated by Praetorian
Guard
|
||
April 22, 238 – Feb 11, 244
|
Feb 11, 244. Unknown; possibly murdered on
orders of Philip I
|
||
Praetorian
Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death; made
his son Philip II co-emperor in summer 247
|
Feb 244 – Sept/Oct 249
|
Sept/Oct 249. Killed in battle against Trajan Decius, near Verona
|
|
Governor
under Philip I; proclaimed emperor by Danubian
legions and defeated Philip in battle; made his son Herennius
Etruscus co-emperor in early 251
|
Sept/ Oct 249 – June 251
|
June 251. Both killed in the Battle
of Abrittus fighting against the Goths
|
|
Son of Trajan Decius, accepted as heir by the Senate
|
June 251 –
late 251
|
Sept/Oct
251.Natural causes (plague)
|
|
Governor
of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian
legions after Trajan Decius's death (in opposition to Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251.
|
June 251 –
Aug 253
|
Aug 253.
Assassinated by their own troops, in favour of Aemilian
|
|
Governor
of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian
legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death
of Gallus
|
Aug 253 –
Oct 253
|
||
Oct 253 –
260
|
After 260.
Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in captivity
|
||
Oct 253 –
Sept 268
|
Sept 268.
Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders.
|
||
Victorious general at Battle of
Naissus,
seized power after Gallienus's death
|
Sept 268 –
Jan 270
|
Jan 270. Natural causes (plague)
|
|
Brother of Claudius
Gothicus,
seized power after his death
|
Jan 270 – 270
|
270. Unclear; possibly
suicide or murder
|
|
Proclaimed
emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus
|
Sept(?) 270 –
Sept 275
|
||
Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnum
|
Sept 275 –
June 276
|
June 276
Natural causes (possibly assassinated) |
|
Brother
of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west
to replace him
|
June 276 –
Sept? 276
|
Sept? 276. Assassinated
by his own troops, in favour of Probus
|
|
Governor
of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition
to Florian
|
Sept 276 – Sept/ Oct 282
|
Sept/ Oct 282. Assassinated by his own troops, in favour
of Carus
|
|
Praetorian
Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or
after Probus was murdered
|
Sept/ Oct 282 – late July/ early Aug 283
|
Late July/early Aug 283.
Natural causes (Possibly killed by lightning) |
|
Late July/early Aug
283 – 284
|
284. Unclear; possibly
assassinated
|
||
Late July/early Aug
283 – 285
|
285. Died
in battle against Diocletian
|
Persecutions of Christians 64-311
In 64 Emperor Nero singled out the nascent Christian community at Rome as a scapegoat for the burning of Rome. It was a local persecution, restricted to the city itself, and it lasted perhaps three years. What Nero did was to create a precedent that permitted the persecution of Christians as Christians. According to Christian tradition, St. Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero in 67.
For the next two hundred years, Christians were persecuted sporadically but only in specific locations (Alexandria, Smyrna, Rome, etc.) and never for a prolonged period in any of these. A period of prolonged peace lasted from 211 to 250. Matters changed in 250 when Emperor Decius ordered all Christians to deny their Christian belief and to worship the Roman gods; those who refused paid with their lives. Continued by his successor, this total persecution finally ended in 260.
The mightiest persecution was the last: Diocletian moved
against the Christians in 303 and in the following year decreed death to all Christians throughout the empire. Before
this general persecution ended in 311, more Christians were slaughtered than in
all previous persecutions combined.
Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty 293-364
It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once.
The first phase, sometimes referred
to as the Diarchy ("rule of two"), involved the designation of
the general Maximian as co-emperor—firstly as Caesar (junior emperor) in 285, followed by his promotion to Augustus in 286. Milan
was eventually declared the capital of the Western Empire in
286 AD.
Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Empire (capital Nicomedia) and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one. In 293, Diocletian thought that more focus was needed on
both civic and military problems, so he expanded the imperial college by appointing
two Caesars (one responsible to each Augustus)—Galerius and Constantius Chlorus.
This Tetrarchy lasted until 313 AD, when internecine conflict eliminated
most of the claimants to power, leaving Constantine
the Great, in control of the Western half of the Empire,
and Licinius in control of
the Eastern half.
Constantine
the Great defeated his rivals and became the sole ruler
of the empire in 324. Constantine subsequently established a second capital city
in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople, a city well-positioned
astride the trade routes between East and West.
Name
|
Succession
|
Reign
|
Death
|
Nov 20, 284 – May 1, 305
|
3 Dec 311. Abdicated; died of natural
causes in Aspalatos
|
||
Adopted as senior co-emperor ('Augustus')
in the west by Diocletian in 286 AD
|
April 1, 286 –
May 1, 305
|
310.
Abdicated with Diocletian; twice tried to regain throne
with, and then from Maxentius; captured by Constantine I and committed suicide at his behest
|
|
Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar')
and heir by Maximian in 293 AD
|
May 1, 305 – July
25, 306
|
306. Natural causes
|
|
Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and
heir by Diocletianin 293 AD. Also son-in-law of Diocletian.
|
May 1, 305 – May 311
|
311.
Natural causes
|
|
|
|
Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar')
and heir by Constantius
I Chlorus in 305 AD; succeeded as Augustus
in 306; opposed by Maxentius and Constantine I
|
Summer 306 – Mar/
April 307
|
Sept 16, 307. Captured by Maxentius and forced to commit suicide (or murdered)
|
Constantine
I, the Great
|
Son of Constantius
I Chlorus, proclaimed
emperor by his father's troops; accepted as Caesar (west) by Galerius in 306 AD;
promoted to Augustus (west) in 307 AD by Maximian after death of Severus
II; refused relegation
to Caesar in 309 AD
|
25 July 306 – May
22, 337
|
May 22, 337 Natural causes
|
|
|
Son of Maximian, seized power in 306 after death
of Constantius
I Chlorus, in opposition to Severus and Constantine I; made Caesar (west) by Maximian
in 307 AD after the death of Severus
|
28 Oct 306 – Oct
28, 312
|
Oct 28, 312. Died at the Battle
of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I
|
|
|
Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his
heir in 305 AD; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311 AD
|
May 1, 311 – July/Aug
313
|
July/Aug 313. Defeated
in civil war against Licinius I; probably committed suicide thereafter
|
|
withValerius
ValensMartinian |
Son-in-law
of Constantius Chlorus, appointed Augustus in the west by Galerius in 308 AD, in opposition to Maxentius; became Augustus in the east in
311 AD after the death of Galerius (shared with Maximinus II); defeated Maximinus in civil
war to become sole eastern Augustus in 313 AD; appointed Valerius Valens in 317 AD, and Martinian in 324 AD as western Augustus,
in opposition to Constantine.
|
Nov 11, 308 – Sept 18, 324
|
325
Defeated in civil war against Constantine
I in 324 and captured;
both
executed on the orders of Constantine
the next year |
|
|
Son of Constantine I; appointed Caesar in 317 AD, succeeded
as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantius II and Constans I
|
May 22, 337 – 340
|
340
Died in battle against Constans I |
|
|
Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with
his brothers Constantine
II and Constans I; sole emperor from 350 AD
|
May 22, 337 – Nov
3, 361
|
361 Natural causes
|
Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with
his brothers Constantine
II and Constantius II
|
May 22, 337 – 350
|
350 Assassinated on the orders
of the usurper Magnentius
|
|
General of Constans I, proclaimed Caesar against Magnentius and temporarily accepted as Augustus of the west by Constantius II.
|
Mar1 – Dec 25, 350
|
c. 356 As a private citizen, after abdication.
|
|
Cousin of Constantius II; made Caesar of the west in 355 AD; proclaimed
Augustus by his troops in 360; sole emperor after the death of Constantius
|
Feb 360 – June
26, 363
|
June 26, 363
Mortally wounded in battle |
|
General of Julian's army; proclaimed emperor
by the troops on Julian's death
|
June 26, 363 –
Feb 17, 364
|
Feb 17, 364. Natural
causes (suffocated on fumes)
|
Conversion to Christianity 313-392
Constantine's
decision to cease the persecution of Christians
in the Roman Empire was a turning point for Early Christianity, sometimes referred to as the
Triumph of the Church, the Peace of the Church or the Constantinian shift.
In 313, Constantine and Licinius issued
the Edict of Milan decriminalizing Christian worship, the emperor became a great patron
of the Church and set a precedent for the position of the Christian emperor within
the Church.
By 313 the Christians
composed perhaps one-tenth or so of the population of the empire with a somewhat
larger concentration in the East than in the West, the effect of his policy transformed
the religious culture of the Roman world and was clearly a defining moment in the
history of the church. By century’s end the majority of the people professed Christianity,
which in 392, in effect, became the official religion of the Roman state.
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